Journal of the Namibia Scientific Society
The Namibia Scientific Society Journal (ISSN: 1018-7677) is a cross-disciplinary journal and publishes research in all fields related to Namibia. Published since 1925, it is the longest-standing academic journal in Namibia and is distributed to libraries in various countries, e.g. Germany, South Africa, Kenya, Australia, Switzerland and USA. In currently 72 volumes, articles have been published in research fields like Architecture Climate/Weather Conservation (Desert) Fauna/Wildlife Geography Heritage management History (colonial time/independence struggle) (Eco) Tourism Vegetation.
Articles published in the Journal of the Namibia Scientific Society are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). This license allows users to copy, distribute, and adapt the material for any purpose, including commercial use, provided that appropriate credit is given to the original author(s) and the source, a link to the license is provided, and any changes made are indicated. Authors retain copyright of their work and grant the journal the right of first publication. All users must ensure proper attribution when reusing or citing published material.
Beers from malted gluten-free and climate smart pearl millet or sorghum grains
Omalovu giilya is an opaque beer from Namibia brewed using malts of pearl millet (mahangu) or sorghum. There is limited data on physicochemical properties and volatile compounds of omalovu. The study investigated the pH, titratable acidity, alcohol, colour, and principal volatile compounds of omalovu brewed using malts of pearl millet varieties (Okashana 2, Kantana, and Kangara) and sorghum (Macia and a landrace referred to as Red sorghum) varieties. Omalovu was fermented for 9 hours at temperature of 37°C. Omalovu pH, alcohol, titratable acidity, and calories were within the reported ranges of other sorghum or pearl millet opaque beers. However, the values of omalovu physicochemical properties were generally lower compared to the reference commercial lager beer used. Omalovu brewed using the malts of Okashana 2 pearl millet variety and of Macia sorghum variety had significantly higher pH, alcohol, titratable acidity, and calories than all other omalovu samples. The compositions of diacetyl, n-propanol, isobutanol, ethyl acetate, amylalcohol, and acetaldehyde in omalovu samples were lower or within given range for barley lager beer but were like the values reported for sorghum opaque beer. Omalovu brewed using the malts of Okashana 2 pearl millet variety had a significantly higher 2,3-pentanedione, n-propanol, isobutanol, amylalcohol, and acetaldehyde than other omalovu samples. These climate-smart, gluten-free grains can produce beers that with processing optimisation can be of commercial value in the uncertain future battling with climate change effect, and potentially suitable for individuals affected by gluten intolerance and ataxia and celiac issues.
flavour; colour; alcohol; congeners; gluten-free; climate-smart
Copyright (c) 2026 Sarah N.P. Nengola, Annastasia K. Ekandjo, Werner Embashu, Komeine K M Nantanga (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Assessing the health of lions (Panthera leo) in a reserve
This research assesses the potential of the body condition score (BCS) and the stomach contents index (SCI) as indicators for monitoring the health status of lions within a fenced-off reserve in central Namibia. BCS is a non-invasive management tool that evaluates an animal’s accumulation of fat and muscle, and SCI is the measure reflecting the saturation state of the stomach. Using 3,700 camera trap pictures from November 2018 to August 2023, we firstly study BCS and SCI of five adult lions (Panthera leo), including two males and three females in a 7,500 hectare fenced-off reserve. Then, we investigate the potential correlation between BCS and SCI and analyse whether factors such as sex, moon phase, season, and time of day have an impact on BCS and SCI. Finally, we investigate the influence of BCS and SCI on the drinking behaviour of the lions. We found that BCS assessments reveal an ideal health status among the lion population in this reserve, while SCI demonstrates a rapid and dynamic response to their feeding behaviour. Analysing the five lions simultaneously reveals a significant positive correlation between BCS and SCI. Concerning the males and females, BCS remains stable across sex but differs between long-term residents and newly introduced lions. In contrast, SCI is unaffected by sex or lion introductions. Our study found no significant variations in BCS and SCI according to the moon phases. While no significant difference in BCS distribution was observed across seasons, SCI varied between dry seasons (dry summer and dry winter) and humid seasons. BCS and SCI showed no differences during dawn, day, and dusk, but we found differences for both between night on the one hand and dawn, dusk, and day on the other. Both BCS and SCI influence their drinking behaviour. The conclusion is that understanding BCS and SCI enhances the monitoring of lion health status, enabling action to be taken accordingly for the effective management of a fenced-off reserve.
Body condition score, Stomach contents index, Animal health, Camera trap, Panthera leo, lion, reserve management, Naankuse
Copyright (c) 2026 Matthieu Müller, Tanja Baetcke-Vilho, Rudie van Vuuren, Marlice van Vuuren (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Clarifying elusive, obscure, or misleading historical Namibian biodiversity collecting localities
Some previously ungeocoded or poorly geocoded historical biodiversity collecting localities of Namibian relevance are clarified, including those that have usually been treated as Namibian but are actually in neighbouring countries, or vice versa. Collectors treated are: J.F. Drège, J.A. Wahlberg, K.J. Andersson, A.W. Eriksson, H. Schinz, A. Lüderitz, L. Schultze, the South African Museum expeditions, the Swedish South Africa Expedition, G. Hobohm, and F. Gaerdes.
Namibia, biodiversity, historical collecting localities
Copyright (c) 2026 John Irish (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Assessing two detection dog-based sampling strategies targeting cheetah scat in diverse environments of central-east Namibia
Cheetah monitoring can be improved with scat detection dogs that efficiently detect marking sites and scats randomly distributed across the landscape. To assess the scalability and adaptability of this method, we applied walking transects and visual searches, both supported by a detection dog, in four areas with varying cheetah densities, land use types, and habitats in central-east Namibia. We successfully detected cheetahs in all four study areas. Walking transects consistently yielded higher detection frequencies and detected cheetah presence in all areas, while vehicular searches were more time-efficient when marking sites were readily available. We recommend using an adaptive strategy to optimize searches depending on environmental characteristics in a given study area.
cheetah monitoring, detection frequencies, method comparison, Namibia, non-invasive sampling, scat detection dogs, scent marking sites, survey design
Copyright (c) 2026 Tim Hofmann, Stijn Verschueren, Niko Balkenhol, Hafeni Hamalwa, Stephan Neumann, Laurie Marker, Anne Schmidt-Küntzel (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Exploring the influence of organizational justice and psychological ownership on turnover intention among the Namibian Defence Force personnel in the Khomas Region
The defence force is important to the well-being, safety, and security of a nation. The availability of competent military personnel maintains national security and enables the country to withstand external threats to safety and security. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of organizational justice and psychological ownership on the turnover intention of the Namibian Defence Force (NDF) personnel in Namibia. Understanding turnover intention assists organizations to reduce the influence of turnover, reduce additional expenses related to recruitment, training, and development, and enhance the overall performance of the organization. A quantitative research design (survey) was used to collect data on Namibian Defence Force personnel (n=325). The study found a negative relationship between organizational justice and turnover intention as well as between psychological ownership and turnover intention. A positive correlation was found between organizational justice and psychological ownership (excluding accountability). This study recommends that the organizational culture and working environment be improved to foster inclusivity, collaboration, mutual respect, and improved communication. With enhanced environment and working relationships, employees are likely to experience higher levels of organizational justice, psychological ownership, and reduced levels of turnover intention. This study adds to the limited literature on these variables and on the NDF in Namibia.
organizational justice, psychological ownership, turnover intention, Namibian Defence Force
Copyright (c) 2026 Sahgarhika Goreses, Lea Haidula, Prof. Dr Pieters (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The contribution of Ju’ǀhoansi Indigenous Master Trackers to the Cape south coast ichnology project
Copyright (c) 2026 Charles Helm, Clive Thompson, Jan De Vynck (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A History of the Buildings of the Namibia Scientific Society
Of the many remaining civil servants’ houses built in Windhoek during the German Colonial Period, houses h and m remain in an excellent state of preservation due to the care given to them by the Namibia Scientific Society, which has been their custodian since the mid-1980s. Little is known about the history of the two houses or their innate technical, aesthetic, and spatial values, which determine their historical significance. This paper addresses this gap while evaluating previous restoration and re-use approaches against the preservation of these values.
Architecture, Architectural History, Heritage Preservation, Gottlieb Redecker
Copyright (c) 2026 Jens Wiedow (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Trends in Voting Behaviour and Democratisation of Namibia (1990–2020)
Voter behaviour is one of the diverse factors that impacts democratic trends, especially when it comes to the legitimacy and the defence of democratic institutions. Previous literature has looked at single cases in Africa and often applied traditional Western models to African democracies. This paper seeks to provide a holistic overview of how voter behaviour is shaped in Namibia. To this end, traditional literature will need to be contrasted with the limited Africa-specific literature to discover what is important when looking at voter behaviour in Africa. A case study of only Namibia will be necessary as the extant literature makes a deep dive into the details difficult. This will be overcome by an in-depth investigation into the traditional influences on voter behaviour and the less common insights of individual African countries. Finally, voter behaviour is influenced by many factors, some of which run contrary to common beliefs, as African voters show themselves as mature decision makers and drivers of democracy in their nations. This paper seeks to provide a foundation from which further research and critique regarding voter behaviour and democratisation in Namibia can be built. The resulting findings indicate that Namibia has factually improved in terms of battling corruption and extending the franchise to the broader population. The belief that ethnic lines are evidenced in voter behaviour is also refuted, while the critical voter is evidenced in Namibian elections.
Africa, Namibia, democratisation, corruption, employment, voting behaviour, foreign aid distribution, election turnout
Copyright (c) 2026 Lars R. Schuler (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Determination of the Sun Protection Factor of Red Ochre, various Namibian Seed Oils, and the Subsequent Development of a Lip Balm
The research aim was to formulate a novel lip balm, using natural products from Namibia. Samples were formulated containing red ochre at different concentrations in either a petroleum jelly base or a zinc oxide (15%) ointment base and assessed for Sun Protection Factor (SPF) activity. The SPF absorbance values of various Namibian seed oils such as ximenia, marula, Kalahari melon, and baobab oil were also determined by UV spectrophotometry. The absorbance values were recorded and substituted into the Mansur equation to calculate the SPF of each sample. The SPF of the standards, zinc oxide ointment British Pharmacopoeia (BP) base and petroleum jelly were 24.0 and 0.6 respectively. The sample with 5% red ochre in petroleum jelly had an SPF of 1.6 and the sample with 10% red ochre in petroleum jelly had an SPF of 3.4. The sample with 20% red ochre in petroleum jelly had an SPF of 12.7, while the sample with 50% red ochre in petroleum jelly had an SPF of 13.2. The 10% red ochre in zinc ointment BP base had an SPF of 11.4, while the 20% red ochre in zinc ointment BP base had an SPF of 28.7. Ximenia oil had the highest SPF of 11.5. Marula oil had an SPF of 0.5, Kalahari melon oil 2.9, and baobab oil 2.7. Therefore, the optimal formulation to use was 20% red ochre and 20% ximenia oil in a zinc ointment BP base.
Sun Protection Factor (SPF), Red Ochre, UV Spectrophotometry, Lip Balm, Namibian Seed Oils
Copyright (c) 2026 Vonja Rupping, Monde Lusepani Lusepani, Philomien Aiases Aiases, Prof. Knott (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Exploring Public Stigma Towards Mental Illnessin Windhoek, Namibia
This study examines public stigma towards mental illness in Windhoek, Namibia, focusing on the level of stigma, attitudes towards people with mental illness (PWMI), and the demographic variables that may influence these attitudes. Using a mixed-methods approach, the study employed the Community Attitudes towards the Mentally Ill (CAMI) scale to survey 150 participants, analysing data with inferential statistics. Additionally, three focus group discussions were conducted with participants from different socio-economic backgrounds to explore views on mental illness. The study found an overall public stigma level of 41 per cent according to the CAMI scale. Key demographic factors such as age, gender, and education were associated with higher stigma levels, with older adults, men, and those with lower educational attainment displaying more negative attitudes. Furthermore, participants from lower socio-economic groups held more misconceptions and misinformation about mental illness than those from higher socio-economic backgrounds. The study highlights the need for targeted interventions to reduce stigma, with strategies such as contact, protest, and education being particularly relevant in the Namibian context. These findings underscore the importance of addressing public stigma in mental health care and the necessity for further research and development of mental health services in Namibia.
public stigma, mental illness, Windhoek, mental health attitudes, socio-economic status, CAMI scale, stigma reduction, community attitudes
Copyright (c) 2026 Marleen Laubscher, Dr Janik (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Brandberg Lithops and its nearest neighbours
Copyright (c) 2026 Dr Harald Jainta (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
In an era of rapid technological advancement and convenience, still only 33% of adults worldwide are financially literate, underscoring the need for innovative solutions to achieve financial independence. This research aims to bridge the gap by developing the first step of a conceptual model for digital financial services, focusing on digital financial readiness. Integrating the Diffusion of Innovation Theory, the Financial Readiness Framework, and the Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) Framework, the research proposes an approach that aligns technological development with users’ financial readiness. This research employs an inductive qualitative method, analysing data from semi-structured interviews with Namibian millennials as a target group. Key findings underscore the importance of enhancing digital and financial literacy, improving infrastructure, and employing user-centric designs to meet diverse needs. Participants highlighted the necessity for continuous education, robust infrastructure, and trustworthy, secure systems. The research concludes that digital financial services must be tailored to user needs in order to achieve financial independence. This research thus offers a structured, user-centred model that aligns technological advancements with practical user requirements, contributing to a more inclusive financial ecosystem. By focusing on these areas, actionable insights and a pathway for developing effective digital financial tools can further promote financial independence.
Financial readiness, Digital and financial literacy, Technology Readiness Levels, User-centric design, Financial independence
Copyright (c) 2026 Henriëtte Hugo (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Ecology of Angolan giraffe (Giraffa giraffa angolensis) in the Namib Rand Nature Reserve, southwestern Namibia
Understanding how giraffe (Giraffa spp.) persist in arid and resource-limited environments is critical for informing conservation strategies in the face of climate change and habitat fragmentation. Yet, little is known about the ecology of Angolan giraffe (Giraffa giraffa angolensis) in the pro-Namib sub-biome of southwest Namibia. This study investigated the population structure, spatial ecology, feeding ecology, and social dynamics of a free-ranging Angolan giraffe population in the NamibRand Nature Reserve (NRNR) – a hyper-arid landscape with minimal anthropogenic disturbance. Over 13 months the NRNR giraffe population remained small and stable, consisting of 13 individuals with a relatively even sex ratio and predominantly adult age structure. Herd sizes ranged from one to ten individuals (mean ± SD: 3.8 ± 2.6), comparable to other arid-adapted giraffe populations. Individuals allocated most of their daily activity budget to feeding and locomotion, consistent with the demands of a low-productivity environment. Diet analysis revealed a strong reliance on Vachellia erioloba, approximately 53% of all observed foraging events. Mean home range sizes were 342.2 ± 63.4km² for females and 265.8 ± 168.5km² for males, with one male ranging up to 521km², likely in response to mate-searching and low conspecific density. Despite the extreme conditions of the pro-Namib, the Angolan giraffe in NRNR displayed ecological and behavioural traits comparable to other populations in arid regions, underscoring the species’ remarkable adaptability. These findings contribute to a growing understanding of Giraffa spp. resilience in marginal habitats and insights for conservation planning in arid ecosystems.
Giraffa, population ecology, home range, forage, behaviour, social network
Copyright (c) 2026 Zazapamue Hange, Julian Thomas Fennessy, Prof. Hauptfleisch, Michael Butler Brown (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
One Health, One Mission: Cheetah Conservation Fund fighting against rabies to protect wildlife,domestic animals, and communities in Namibia
Rabies is a zoonotic disease endemic in Namibia, which affects animals and people worldwide and is fatal if not treated in time. Due to its cross-sectoral implications for human health, animal health, biodiversity, and livelihoods, rabies constitutes a major One Health challenge. Effective control strategies against rabies require a multidisciplinary approach to create awareness, educate the public, vaccinate dogs and cats, and maintain continuous surveillance. To contribute to national and global rabies control efforts, and protect wildlife, the Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF) initiated a mass rabies vaccination campaign in the four eastern communal conservancies of the Greater Waterberg Landscape, Namibia. These efforts aim to reduce rabies transmission at the human–domestic animal– wildlife interface, maintaining the health of domestic carnivores and reducing the risk of disease spreading among people and vulnerable wildlife populations (such as cheetahs, Acinonyx jubatus, and wild dogs, Lycaon pictus). Since 2019 the CCF team has operated in underserved, remote areas, administering over 10,000 rabies vaccinations to dogs and cats over six years. Through concurrent educational efforts CCF has also raised awareness about rabies and other common diseases affecting both domestic and wild animals, such as canine distemper and canine parvovirus. CCF remains committed to continuing this essential work, not only for the safety of wildlife, but for the health and well-being of the people living in these communities. By addressing rabies with a One Health strategy, this approach can support both biodiversity conservation and community resilience.
eastern communal conservancies, mass dog vaccination campaign, Namibia, One Health, rabies, wildlife
Copyright (c) 2026 Journal of the Namibia Scientific Society
A Decade of Microbiome Research in the Namib Desert
Introduction The Namib Desert, one of the oldest drylands on Earth with an estimated age of 43 million years, lies along the entire coast of Namibia, from the Kunene River and the Angolan border in the north (S 17.27°) to the Orange River and the South African border in the south (S 28.64°). This coastal desert is a land of two halves. Much of the northern sector, from the Kuiseb River (S 23.11°) to the Angolan border, is a flat calcrete gravel desert (Eckardt et al. 2013). The southern sector, from the Kuiseb River to the South African border, is largely sand dunes (the Namib ‘Sand-Sea’, a UNESCO World Heritage Site). The climate of the Namib Desert, in terms of water relations, is distinctive (Eckardt et al. 2013). The Atlantic coastal regions, which are strongly influenced by the coastal upwelling of the cold southern Atlantic Benguela current, receive minimal rainfall, but are regularly inundated with fog which rolls in from the sea overnight and can penetrate inland for up to 60 km. Many of the coastal species, both plants and animals, are specially adapted to capture fog water. The interior hyper-arid regions of the Namib Desert receive no fog and little rain, while the eastern zone receives ‘regular’ seasonal rainfall. Although a strong driver of plant and insect species diversity, the effect of water-input zonation on the microbiology of the desert soils remained largely unknown until teams of researchers led by Prof. Don Cowan, initially from the University of the Western Cape (2009 to 2012) and subsequently from the University of Pretoria (2013 to 2022), undertook annual research expeditions to the Gobabeb Research Station (now, Gobabeb-Namib Research Institute; https://gobabeb.org/) to unravel the microbial ecology of the Namib Desert. Despite the Namib Desert having been an intense focus of research for nearly 70 years (Seely & Pallett 2012: Henschel & Lancaster 2013), prior to 2010 very little was known of any aspect of the region’s microbiology. The Namib Desert lichens have received the most attention (Wessels & Van Vuuren 1986; Wessels 1989; Schieferstein & Loris 1992; Büdel et al. 2011; Hinchcliffe et al. 2017). There have been a few early studies of fungal diversity and physiology (Jacobson et al. 1993; Jacobson 1997; Jacobson & Jacobson 1998; Stutz et al. 2000). These, and a single study of soil viral diversity (Prestel et al. 2008), represent the totality of ‘microbial knowledge’ of the region. In 2010, we initiated an intensive (and extensive) program to fill out this sparse knowledge. We began using modern molecular phylogenetic methods. Initially based on 16S rRNA gene (prokaryote diversity) and ITS (lower eukaryote diversity) molecular fingerprinting and amplicon sequencing, our work subsequently expanded to include deep shotgun metagenome sequence analysis (yielding both phylogenetic and functional diversity data), total DNA-metavirome sequencing and metatranscriptome sequencing (sequencing of cDNA libraries from extracted and purified total mRNA, yielding high volumes of data on gene expression). One of the many factors that helped to drive this research program was the knowledge that, in desert ecosystems where the higher plants are sparsely distributed and/or very transitory, the soil microbial populations are disproportionately important in supporting essential ecosystem services such as carbon and nitrogen cycling.
Namib Desert, Soil; Microbiomics, Microbial ecology, Aridity
Copyright (c) 2025 Journal of the Namibia Scientific Society
Shaping the Cartography of Southwestern Africa
A dangerous barren coast, a harsh interior environment, and at times violent conflicts among its inhabitants were all obstacles to the exploration and mapping of southwestern Africa. Looking back on more than five hundred years of mapped history, Namibia nevertheless boasts one of the richest cartographic heritages of the African countries south of the equator. For a concise orientation on significant milestones of that extensive cultural heritage, this paper selects for discussion sixteen outstanding coastal charts and orientation maps of the interior1 from the four centuries between the years 1502 and 1902. For the continuity of contextual circumstances that drove the cartographic unveiling of southwestern Africa, this paper presents the selected charts and maps in a chronological order from the time of the Portuguese discovery until the eve of the major cartographical changes brought about by the Herero and Nama uprisings.
Cartography, Southwestern Africa, Portuguese Discovery, Enlightenment, Nineteenth Century
A Sense of Time and Place: the rock art of Klein Ghausib and Tantus in the Windhoek District of the Khomas Region
Literature on the rock art of Namibia in general, and the Khomas Region in particular, shows that most paintings fall within the Later Stone Age (LSA), as indeed do these paintings discussed in this article. In the case of Namibia, the LSA covers the period of 20,000 to roughly 300 years BP (before present). The oldest dated rock art in Namibia is from the Apollo 11 rock shelter in southern Namibia. In Khomas, rock art is found in caves, under rock overhangs, on boulders, on an exposed wall or on an isolated rocky outcrop. Of these, the most common occurrence of paintings is under a rock overhang. Some paintings are found on suitable surfaces of granite, composed mainly of quartz and feldspars. Rock art also occurs on surfaces comprising mica schist and gneiss that occurs in central Namibia in an approximate 250km radius of Windhoek and is present in the towering Hakos Mountains (1998m) that form part of the Great Escarpment. Both Klein Ghausib (408) and Tantus (30) fall within what geologists call the ‘Damara Mountain Belt’. The sites discussed in this contribution have paintings that show social activities and ritual and symbolic engagements between humans and totem animals. They form part of a much wider distribution of such art in southern Africa and beyond. As the rock-face conveys meaning, so too does each image within a panel of paintings. The documentation and preservation of rock art, irrespective of whether it occurs in primary or secondary sites, pose special challenges to researchers and farmers alike, particularly since many of the sites in the Khomas Region are subjected to environmental stress and vandalism. It is recommended that the documentation of rock art of the Khomas Region be fully integrated into the Namibian Rock Art Atlas and with the National Heritage Council. Moreover, public awareness campaigns are mounted to educate farmers, farm workers, and visitors on the cultural and heritage importance of rock art in the country.
Copyright (c) 2025 Namibia Scientific Society; André du Pisani
A Decade of Solar and Terrestrial Radiation Monitoring at Gobabebfor BSRN
The Gobabeb Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN) location was established a decade ago as part of a global network to provide standardised, high quality surface observations of radiation fluxes under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organisation. The Gobabeb BSRN measures the incoming and outgoing shortwave and longwave radiationat two locations in the Central Namib Desert. With a suite of instruments, radiative fluxes of shortwave downward radiation (SWD), direct solar radiation (DIR), diffuse radiation (DIF), longwave downward radiation (LWD), shortwave upward radiation (SWU) and longwave upward radiation (LWU) are recorded at 1-min intervals, together with relevant meteorological variables directly at the locations. As logistical issues prevent frequent calibration of instruments against World Radiometric standards, the measurements 142 Journal / Namibia Scientific Society / Volume 69 - 2022 R. Vogt, E. Marais, G. Maggs-Kölling, F.-M. Göttsche, J. Cermak, M.K. Seely of DIR, SWD and LWD are duplicated to replicate radiation measurements as primary and redundant datasets. The two datasets are compared to each other to identify and exclude questionable data before being deposited in an open-access repository. The Gobabeb BSRN dataset is of very high quality, with less than 1% data missing for downward radiation. The upward radiation dataset has more missing data due to its becoming operational at a later date. As expected, climatic variables have the greatest influences on radiation fluxes at Gobabeb. Due to its location in a hyperarid desert, radiation is generally high throughout the year. Reflected radiation from rare cloud walls during the austral summer may, however, result in very high downward fluxes. The frequent incidence of fog due to onshore advection of stratus cloud banks over the nearby South Atlantic Ocean from August to February is distinctly visible in the dataset. Variation in the radiative fluxes of the different elements provides more detailed information on seasonal and daily incidence of fog, as well as seasonal changes in atmospheric aerosols. We briefly illustrate how high-quality BSRN data are used globally for validating solar energy resource assessments and evaluating differences between modelled predictions and actual surface performance.
Solar radiation, net radiation, Baseline Surface Radiation Network, long-term measurements
Copyright (c) 2022 Namibia Scientific Society; Roland Vogt; Eugene Marais; Gillian Maggs-Kölling; Frank-M. Göttsche; Jan Cermak; Mary K. Seely
!Nara Harvesters of the Northern Namib: a Cultural History through Three Photographed Encounters
We report on Indigenous cultural heritage and histories associated with the northern Namib desert, designated since 1971 as the Skeleton Coast National Park. Review of historical documents and oral histories from elderly people with direct and familial memories of accessing and living in the northern Namib show how places and resources were used here by Khoekhoegowab-speaking peoples in the past. A focus of this use was the availability of valued foods, especially melons of the !nara (Acanthosicyos horridus). Three photographed encounters provide focus for a narrative connecting memories about the northern Namib that stretch back to the first European colonial journeys into this remote area of north-west Namibia. In ‘repeopling’ the northern Namib, we aim to also ‘rehumanise’ documented colonial encounters that objectified and diminished the peoples who knew, accessed and dwelled in this now protected area.
northern Namib, on-site oral history, cultural landscapes, Indigenous histories, Khoekhoegowab, !nara (Acanthosicyos horridus), Skeleton Coast National Park, Namibia.
Copyright (c) 2023 Namibia Scientific Society; Sian Sullivan; Welhemina Suro Ganuses
Preliminary results on the quantification and taphonomic analysis of the Zoo Park (Windhoek, Namibia) Proboscidean remains
Landscaping work at Zoo Park (Windhoek, Namibia) in 1961/1962 revealed a Holocene open-air site containing proboscidean remains (Loxodonta spp.) associated with quartz stone artefacts. Zoo Park has been cited in various publications as a butchery site with various authors differing on the number of the elephants found at the site. To verify these claims, a taphonomic analysis and quantification of the elephant remains was carried out. The study is ongoing. The preliminary results have documented two elephants and taphonomic analysis suggests possible human exploitation of the remains. The study shows that the exploitation of elephants for subsistence at Zoo Park was likely the result of butchering related to scavenging activities.
proboscideans, Loxodont, Holocene, taphonomic analysis, Windhoek, Zoo Park, butchering site
Copyright (c) 2023 Namibia Scientific Society; Emma Haitengi
Determining risk of a regime shift in a coupled arid Social-Ecological System
Southern Africa has been identified as a climate change hot-spot, warming at about twice the global rate. The projected warming and drying of this arid and semi-arid region will limit the options for adaptation to climate change, especially in marginalized communities. A particular risk is that climate change may cause an abrupt, irreversible ‘regime shift’ in ecological processes and functions with cascade effects on coupled social ecological systems and profound consequences for the capacity of those systems to support livelihoods. Together with southern African and German partners, the Gobabeb Namib Research Institute and Namibia University of Science and Technology recently launched a SASSCAL-funded project called TIPping Points Explained by Climate Change (abbreviated TIPPECC) to 1) to assess the risk of climate change induced regime shifts or tipping points in southern Africa, 2) to provide a range of climate services, and 3) to co-produce with affected communities, policymakers, and natural resource managers adaptation options to safeguard against the effects of such tipping points should they occur. The Namibian contribution to TIPPECC (TIPPECC-Kunene) focuses on the ari zone pastoralist rangeland system of the Ovahimba of northern Kunene. Ovahimba have inhabited the region for over 200 years, surviving several intense droughts. The pastoralist lifestyle is finely attuned to its environment, adapting to seasonal and longer-term fluctuations in their resources. However, several factors, including population growth and increased sedentarisation have put pressure on the whole social-ecological system (SES), making it vulnerable to climate change and subsequent regime shifts in their resource base. TIPPECC-Kunene aims to use both traditional ecological knowledge and scientific data to determine 1) the probability of climate tipping points leading to regime shifts in the SES, and 2) those factors that will cause changes and/or shifts, with an emphasis on the role that climate tipping points will play in this. We further aim 3) to co-develop, with affected communities, feasible adaptation strategies to ongoing global change, ensuring alignment with inherent coping strategies. TIPPECC-Kunene is organised around eight thematic groups, including studies on vegetation change and degradation, livestock foraging ecology, changes in resource access rules, adaptation, and livelihoods, and the role of boreholes in driving social and environmental change.
Social-Ecological System, regime shifts, Southern Africa, Gobabeb
Copyright (c) 2023 Namibia Scientific Society; Theo Wassenaar; Cornelis van der Waal; Wilka Ndapulamo; Kakunamuua Tjiningire; Dylan Dentlinger; Venomukua Tjiseua; Francois Engelbrecht
The rock art of the Khomas Region is not as well-known as that of the Erongo Region with its celebrated apex sites at the Dȃures, Erongo Mountains, the Spitzkoppe, and !Ui-ǁaes (Twyfelfontein). Historically and intellectually, there has been less of a sustained research interest in the rock art of the Khomas Region, notwithstanding the ground-breaking work of Ernst Scherz in the 1970s and late 1980s and a sprinkling of more recent articles devoted to some of the rock art sites of the Region. This, in and of itself, is enough reason to write about the rock art of a region yet to be comprehensively documented, surveyed and researched. Over the past eighteen years the author has visited more than 320 rock art sites located on 62 farms within the boundaries of the region. Undoubtedly, there are more sites to be documented and discovered, and through this, more insights to be gained into southern African rock art. Most of the art dates from the Later Stone Age (LSA), with some a few hundred years BP (Before Present), and typical material artefacts of that period are to be found at or in close proximity to the sites. The vast majority of the paintings are rendered in ochre and show the interaction between animals and people, and scenes from daily life, with some abstract renderings as well. The rock art of the Khomas Region needs to be considered within a wider frame of southern African rock art research. Moreover, the researcher must be aware of and sensitive to diverse theoretical and methodological approaches to rock art, while respecting an ethnographic foundation, in an attempt to derive meaning from the paintings.
Rock art, Khomas Region, ethnography, storylines in rock art, imagistic mosaic of San (Bushman) myth, animals as symbols, art and landscape, rock art panels, artefacts, quarts-microliths.
Copyright (c) 2023 Namibia Scientific Society; André du Pisani
Antimicrobial activity of three Namibian ethnomedicinal plants: !Guxa (Aptosimum albomarginatum Marloth and Engl.), Aru (Albizia anthelmintica A.Rich Brongn.) and Gu-!aru (Dicoma schinzii O. Hoffm.)
With antibiotic resistance being an enduring problem worldwide, alternative treatment options, such as ‘natural antibiotics’, should be considered. This work aimed to perform antimicrobial assays, with the purpose of scientifically evaluating the effectiveness of three Namibian ethno-medicinal plants, namely:!Guxa (Aptosimum albomarginatum Marloth and Engl.), Aru (Albizia anthelmintica A. Rich Brongn.) and Gu-!aru (Dicoma schinzii O. Hoffm.). It was found that !Guxa root extract exerted antimicrobial activity against five out of the eight strains tested, with strong activity against Streptococcus sanguinis at an extract concentration of 20mg/ml. Moderate activity was observed for the other cultures tested. Candida albicans, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were resistant to !Guxa. These results give some scientific proof regarding the usefulness of !Guxa rootextract as traditional medicine in some
Aptosimum albomarginatum, Albizia anthelmintica, Dicoma schinzii, traditional ethno-medicinal plants, antimicrobial activity, Namibia.
Copyright (c) 2023 Namibia Scientific Society; Sunette Walter
Validation of Satellite-Retrieved Land Surface Temperature (LST) Products at Gobabeb, Namibia
Global land surface temperature (LST) data derived from satellite-based infrared radiance measurements are highly valuable for various applications in climate research. LST is a fundamental state variable for land surface processes and has long been available from satellite observations in the thermal infrared (TIR). LST is also increasingly important for studies assessing land surface conditions, e.g., studies of urban climate, evapotranspiration, and vegetation stress. LST is usually retrieved from satellite-based radiance measurements in the infrared (IR) or microwave (MW) range and it is well suited to provide global coverage. Due to the spatial scale mismatch between ground and satellite-based measurements and the heterogeneity of natural land surfaces, the validation of satellite LST data sets is a challenging task. However, in situ validation is essential for obtaining quantitative information on the accuracy of LST satellite products. Permanent, continuous in situ measurements of up- and downwelling TIR radiance allow the analysis of long timeseries of satellite LST observations, which can reveal seasonal cycles and potential deviations; these can originate from surface anisotropy, topography, heterogeneous land cover, or spatial variations in soil moisture. Many of the validation results obtained over the Namib gravel plains demonstrate the maturity of the LST products investigated over the past 15 years. They also highlight the need to carefully consider their temporal and spatial properties when using them for scientific purposes. Total uncertainty of in situ LST obtained from the TIR radiance measurements at the Gobabeb wind tower is estimated as 0.8 ± 0.12°C, which is highly accurate for a bare soil site with diurnal LST amplitudes of up to 40°C. Analyses of spatial representativeness performed on the meter to kilometer scale near Gobabeb Namib Research Institute yielded an absolute bias of 0.5°C compared to in situ LST, a value mainly achieved thanks to the Namib’s hyper-arid desert climate and the spatial homogeneity and temporal stability of the gravel plains. The Namib gravel plains were found to be suitable for validating LST with pixel sizes of up to 100 km2 and the continued availability of the in situ measurements from Gobabeb is of high importance for accurately validating and monitoring current and future satellite LST products.
land surface temperature, in situ measurements, satellite retrievals, long-term validation, spatial representativeness.
Copyright (c) 2022 Namibia Scientific Society; Frank-M. Göttsche; Jan Cermak; Eugene Marais; Gillian Maggs-Kölling
Tenebrionid Beetle Diversity Increases with Aridity Across the Namib Desert
Darkling beetles (Tenebrionidae: Coleoptera) are commonly associated with hot arid lands worldwide. In southern Africa, the number of species is reported to increase along the east-to-west gradient in aridity. The highest diversity is found in the Namib Desert, which occupies a 100 km by 2,000 km hyperarid strip along the west coast, from South Africa to the south into southern Angola. We sought to confirm this regional diversity pattern by collecting tenebrionids with pitfall traps at five SASSCAL observatories along a transect stretching from the hyperarid desert interior (MAP 25 mm, CV 130%) to semiarid conditions 260 km inland (MAP 343 mm, CV 36%). We collected tenebrionids during 11–20 month-long trapping sessions and identified species from seven tenebrionid tribes and subtribes which were previously recorded in half-degree squares across the arid western half of the southern Africa region. Even though there was a six-fold decrease in tenebrionid abundance, all diversity indices increased with increasing aridity (e.g. α-diversity inland: 1.40, desert interior 3.71). Community structure was very different in the interior highland plateau compared to the desert (ß-diversity 0.52–0.69), while adjacent sites in the desert differed less (ß-diversity 0.26–0.29). In the desert, tenebrionids were recorded most frequently at sheltered sites where windblown detritus is trapped, while in the interior, more were recorded away from sheltered locations where they might encounter sit-and-wait predators. Geomorphological processes and heterogeneous moisture conditions over space and time could explain how so many Namib Desert endemic tenebrionids evolved and coexist.
biodiversity, abundance, detritivores, rainfall variability, darkling beetles, time niches
Copyright (c) 2022 Namibia Scientific Society; Joh R. Henschel; Theo D. Wassenaar
Mirabib Rockshelter, located near the Kuiseb River in the Namib-Naukluft National Park, is one of the best known archaeological sites in the Namib Desert. Previous excavations in the 1970s revealed a complex history of occupation stretching from the early Holocene until the proto-historical period. New research at Mirabib has pushed its chronology back to ca. 18–21 ka BP and revealed new insights into human adaptations in the region. While the site has yielded exceptionally well-preserved evidence going back to the terminal Pleistocene, there is still a great deal of untapped potential for learning more about human life in the Namib in the distant past.
Archaeology, Namib Desert, Late Stone Age, Middle Stone Age
Copyright (c) 2022 Namibia Scientific Society; Theodore P. Marks
Using Signature Whistles to Investigate Population Dynamics of Locally Threatened Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in Namibia
Namibia is known for its rolling dunes and desert landscapes. These dunes often roll right into the sea, and into a coastline that hosts an incredibly diverse assemblage of species. Some of the more easily observed wildlife can be seen at the Walvis Bay lagoon, an internationally recognized conservation site for wading birds, or at Cape Cross and Pelican Point, which host immense colonies of Cape fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillis pusillis). The Namibian Dolphin Project (NDP) studies a more cryptic order of animals, cetaceans (whales and dolphins), which are resident to, or migrate through, the coastal waters of Namibia. Founded in 2008, NDP’s research investigates a range of questions including the sound production and behaviour of common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), Heaviside’s dolphins (Cephalorhynchus heavisidii), and humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae). The focus of one of our more recent projects is to develop a method to estimate abundance, density, and movement patterns of dolphin populations, using a specific type of whistle produced by some delphinids, the signature whistle (Janik et al., 2013; Kriesell et al., 2014). We have termed this method, SWORD: Signature Whistles for Occurrence, Recapture and Density (Gridley et al., in prep).
Mark-recapture, spatial capture-recapture, social networks, conservation, passive acoustic monitoring, PAMGuard, marine mammal, individual identification
Copyright (c) 2021 Namibia Scientific Society; Jack Fearey; Simon Elwen; Sasha Dines; Bridget James; Tess Gridley
The Importance of Being Earnest – the Relation between Hendrik Witbooi and the Gamsberg
Hendrik Witbooi (c. 1830–1905) was captain of the Witbooi people living in southern Namibia. For a long time, Witbooi defied the German occupation by fighting against the German colonial troops, until he died of wounds sustained in battle. His leadership in resisting the colonist armies make many consider him as a national hero in Namibia today. The African Millimeter Telescope (AMT) project aims to bring the first sub-mm radio telescope (an essential link to the network of telescopes known as the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT)) to the African continent, specifically the Gamsberg mountain in Namibia. This recommendation will explore Hendrik Witbooi’s life and his geographical locations in relation to the Gamsberg mountain.
Hendrik Witbooi, Gamsberg, colonialism, African Millimeter Telescope (AMT).
Copyright (c) 2021 Namibia Scientific Society; Sanne de Jong
On the Body in Rock Art of the Khomas Region
In many cultures, the body is regarded as a representation and reflection of their society or community. The body appears in the visual archive of rock art and takes on highly symbolic meanings. Individual organs are associated with certain emotions: the heart, the head, the nose, the womb, the penis, the stomach, hands, blood, bodily emissions and so forth. Aspects of culture were imagined to reside in the body. This type of symbolism also holds true for San culture and spirituality, where the heart, the liver, the hands, the nose, the womb, the penis, the blood, the stomach and other body fluids are important metaphors of emotional and material conditions of shared social experiences and beliefs of culturally related people – whether these refer to witchcraft, or to special capacities and agency, charismatic or healing qualities, contagious infections, love, rain-making, anger or symbolic communion or specific rituals such as initiation ceremonies. Of all body parts, the genital organs are invested with the greatest symbolic meaning. Representations of the vulva and the phallus are to be found in many variations all over the world and have been submitted to various interpretations. The widely-held idea that the rock art ‘illustrates’ the folklore and myths is not viable. Research over the past four decades, shows that the practice of making images was essentially concerned with different types of engagement with the supernatural realm and its beings. San image-making, as Lewis-Williams (2017:150) reminds us, “… was a ritual practice in its own right, not a secondary, merely illustrative appendage to San mythology or anything else”. While it is undoubtedly meaningful to view rock art within a landscape framework to identify primary and secondary resource nodes as Lenssen-Erz (2004), Breunig (2019) and Kinahan (2020), among other archaeologists suggest, rock art could also be seen as a modification of the landscape and a construction of living social and cultural spaces, through altered states of consciousness, dreaming, folklore, rituals and visions. The field of cognitive archaeology is widely associated with altered states and entoptic phenomena – altered states of consciousness induced by hallucinogenic substances – (Lewis-Williams, 1991 & 2002) and Whitley (1994), but other aspects of the mind are also important. One of these concerns the body and bodily experience. In initiation practices, girls and boys are prepared for their gender-specific roles in society. Particular attention is paid to sexual education. Because of the perceived relationship between the body and the social order, the coherence of its parts and the harmonious communication of its members is the basis of the well-being of the community. There are numerous rock art sites in the Khomas Region and elsewhere in the country, that have images of bodies in the trance or medicine and rain dance; the most important ritual for all San groups (Lewis-Williams & Pearce, 2012). The dance promotes psychological well-being and social cohesion and is about the use of nǀum to achieve, !ia (also spelled !khia). Nǀum has variously been translated as ‘medicine’, ‘energy’, ‘potency’ or ‘power’. The term has many meanings and refers to herbal medicines, healing, menstrual blood, pregnancy and ejaculation, among others (Lee, 1984:109).
Rock art, body, entoptic phenomena, genitals, symbolism, rituals, psychological well-being, trance/medicine dance, shaman
Copyright (c) 2025 Namibia Scientific Society Journal
This article deals with the Nama Wars from 1904 in the then South-West Africa. What role did the Ethiopian movement play? Was war inevitable or would there have been possibilities for an arrangement between the Nama tribes and the colonial power? What role played personal relations, for example, between Hendrik Witbooi and Theodor Leutwein? “We learn from history that we learn nothing from history.” – George Bernard Shaw
Nama, Hendrik Witbooi, Aufstand, 1904, Orlaam, Simon Kopper
Copyright (c) 2001 Namibia Scientific Society; Michael Vaupel